VOLUME 12, NUMBER 2, 1998
Guest Editorial
Michael F. Beaudoin
Articles (for abstracts,
click here)
Leadership in Accreditation and Networked Learning
James W. Hall
Creating Shared Leadership Environments in Institutional
and International Settings
Janet K. Poley
Quality Control in Distance Education: The Role of
Regional Accreditation
Amy Kirle Lezberg
Low-key Leadership: Collegiate Correspondence Study
and "Campus Equivalence"
Von V. Pittman
Gaining Perspective for the Future of Distance Education
from Early Leaders
Ellen L. Bunker
Joint Ventures in Distance Education: Mapping Uncharted
Terrain
Andrea J. Lee and Tracy G. Marsh
Distance Education is a Strategy: What is the Objective?
Thomas W. Smith
Interview
Speaking Personally with Roy McTarnaghan
Michael F. Beaudoin
Book Review
The Costs and Economy of Open and Distance Learning
by Greville Rumble
Marvin Van Kekerix
GUEST EDITORIAL
Leadership in Distance Education
Michael F. Beaudoin
Leadership in distance education is somewhat akin to democracy in India when Mahatma Ghandi was asked what he thought of it, and he replied, "We should try it sometime." This is not to suggest that there is no effective leadership in distance education; certainly we know it exists, but we have not done a very effective job of defining it. Organizational behaviorists have taken great pains in the recent literature to distinguish between management and leadership, and a large new body of literature has emerged on the elusive phenomenon of leadership. Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus (1985), in their study of strategies for taking charge, discuss transformative leadership‹a particular approach that requires reshaping organizational practices to adapt to environmental changes and that overcomes resistance to change by creating visions of the future to evoke confidence in and mastery of new organizational practices.
Bennis and Nanus (1985) define transformative leadership as the capacity to translate intentionality into reality and sustain it. This is especially germane when applied to the distance education arena because educational institutions encounter problems and complexities that often require the reshaping of organizational practices reinforced by entrenched faculty or administrators. Tranformational leaders must not only recognize new ways of doing things but must also convince others to move in new directions. In order to overcome resistance to change, they must be capable of envisioning, articulating, and advocating visions that foster new organizational practices that affect providers (e.g., faculty) and consumers (e.g., students), as well as other stakeholders (e.g., trustees).
If they perceive themselves as leaders, as distinct from managers, if they deal with new paradigms of thought and action, rather than what is politically correct, and if they engage in bold new policies and practices, while others prefer to remain cautious incrementalists, then we begin to discern qualities of educational leadership that can result in fundamental organizational change, including provocative new ideas regarding teaching and learning. This style of leadership shapes new understandings, transforms intentionality into action, and, thus, creates what Bennis and Nanus (1985) call a "commonwealth of learning," an apt phrase for participants of distance education.
It is this special form of leadership within the changing environment of distance education that we seek to define and analyze in this issue. To this end, several scholars, practitioners, and administrators of distance education were asked to share their insights about how leadership is appropriately and effectively manifested in this challenging context. There are some who may ask, "Who are past and current leaders in distance education, and have they given us anything of lasting importance?" Others may even wonder if leadership in distance education is really important, or if this phenomenon has assumed a direction sans true leadership. Hopefully, the authors have addressed some of these provocative questions.
Curiously, despite the remarkable increase in attention to distance education initiatives-especially within the past decade-we have yet to see much literature that attempts to provide useful insight into the elusive attribute of leadership and the consequences of its critical presence or conspicuous absence. We have chronicled many distance education projects, studied the influence of certain technologies on teaching and learning at a distance, described delivery systems, and critiqued curriculum content and format, but we are only now beginning to address, with greater awareness and insight, matters relating to the more esoteric aspects of policy and planning, as well as the politics that facilitate or impede such efforts. It is encouraging to note that the American Center for the Study of Distance Education's research symposia and research monographs have included work relating to policy and management issues and that more authors/practitioners have begun to address this lacuna.
It may be that during the early pioneering generations of distance education the leadership was so engaged in convincing the opposition of the legitimacy of its enterprise that little attention was given to the dynamics of leadership and how it has ultimately contributed to the establishment of a body of practice that has shaped the field to the present day. Gradually, some effort was made to identify, articulate, and promulgate a set of "best practices" in distance education, but these principles did not acknowledge and address the dimension of leadership in any explicit way. Despite exemplary distance education models and impressive programs with burgeoning enrollments, we still are witnessing too many trial and error efforts and chronicling too many failures, without arriving at new insights about what effect leadership has had on the success or failure of these phenomena.
In planning this issue on leadership, we organized the authors' contributions by identifying the context in which each particular presentation on leadership takes place. It was useful to recognize that differing approaches are required in the many venues in which distance education now functions. Therefore, the articles selected pay particular attention to the literature on leadership, revisit historical events, and examine leadership in institutions, accrediting bodies, the business environment, professional associations, and the international arena. Selected cases that illustrate leadership practices have also been included.
James Hall and Janet Poley begin by introducing leadership issues and styles in the context of a field that is evolving rapidly and expanding worldwide. Hall discusses the convergence of traditional campus-based education and distance education and the consequent blurring of distinctions between the two approaches. He examines this phenomenon within the context of accreditation and considers how the decisions made by leaders of evaluative activities influence the quality, control, and credibility of academic work pursued by students learning at a distance. Poley looks at both institutional and international settings to offer insights into the effectiveness of various leadership styles. She reviews pertinent literature, analyzes selected case studies, and discusses leadership strategies such as networking to demonstrate how leadership environments appropriate to accomplishing distance education goals can be created.
Amy Lezberg and Von Pittman offer insights into leadership approaches within organizational settings, focusing on the roles of professional associations and accrediting bodies. Pittman provides an historical perspective on leadership in correspondence study as manifested through the early initiatives of the National University Extension Association and the National Home Study Council. This piece examines the areas in which these two important and influential organizations competed and converged in their respective efforts to establish standards in the profession and assesses their effectiveness and impact. Lezberg provides a careful review of standards adopted by the leadership of regional accrediting associations. She describes the appropriateness and effectiveness of criteria by which institutions are assessed in such areas as curriculum requirements, expected competencies, adequacy of resources, necessary support services, faculty-student interactions, and other critical factors, as well as how these standards are applied.
Ellen Bunker's article provides a useful historical perspective of distance education leadership by highlighting the seminal ideas on correspondence study articulated by several early thinkers and doers closely connected to the International Council for Distance Education. She discusses leaders, such as Knute O. Broady, who distinguished themselves by making significant early contributions to the field through words and deeds.
Tracy Marsh and Sr. Andrea Lee, followed by Thomas Smith, present cases and examples to demonstrate where educational and business interests converge and diverge in designing and delivering distance education. Marsh and Lee recognize that, increasingly, new partnerships exist between academic institutions and private sector companies. While exciting and innovative, these alliances still raise concerns regarding the prospect of compromising educational goals in the interest of financial gain. The authors present an example of one successful alliance that effectively addresses these concerns and look more generally at trends in the business of distance education. Smith observes that, along with the educational objectives associated with distance learning initiatives, there are usually social, political, and business goals also attached. He contends that this has contributed to distance education's becoming the objective, which creates a means-ends confusion in much of distance education today. He discusses the tools and techniques of distance education as a set of strategies and tactics that leaders might utilize to better understand and implement distance education.
Finally, this portfolio on leadership concludes with an interview with Roy McTarnaghan, who was instrumental in the creation of a new state university in Florida with a distance education focus. He was interviewed in AJDE three years ago during the planning phase of this effort and is now re-visited to discuss the leadership variables that were critical in influencing progress and addressing problems in the implementation phase.
It is our hope that the work assembled and shared in this issue will contribute to continued theoretical, practical, analytical, and evaluative writing on the theme of leadership in distance education. The role of leaders in their widening sphere of influence and engagement is too significant in defining and determining desired outcomes in distance learning to treat with only peripheral interest. It deserves more understanding and insight if we are to make further progress in the important work we are doing.
Reference
Bennis, W., and B. Nanus. 1985. Leaders, the strategies for taking
charge. New York: Harper & Row.
Leadership in Accreditation and Networked Learning
James W. Hall
"Distance education and traditional campus-based education are experiencing an historic convergence (toward networked education) that has produced a high degree of anticipation and anxiety among those who deal with institutional evaluation and accreditation." Although each state has the power to regulate education institutions "with physical presence in their domain" through the Federal Constitution of the U.S., distance and networked education raises complex issues.
The many and startling changes in higher education,
"the clear trend toward convergence of educational modes of delivery,
and the emergence of new organizations and combinations that transcend
traditional boundaries, the whole area of institutional accreditation
will require visionary and persuasive leadership." Hall believes
that students will play a role, possibly as catalysts, to assist in the
a meaningful evaluation and assessment in the coming years of institutional
accreditation.
Creating Shared Leadership Environments
in Institutional and International Settings
Janet K. Poley
The author notes that of late leadership literature has sprung up in the field of distance education, although this literature is the interest of a an ever increasing output of theoretical and practical literature. Poley's article gives a picture of individual and organizational leadership, especially from a "change perspective." "The current leadership literature includes the concepts of visionary leadership, transformational leadership, situational leadership, breakthrough leadership, and shared leadership."
Western Governors University (WGU) is mentioned as an example of a Virtual University that has been extensively written about and yet has not enrolled students. "One might call the WGU leadership style a marketing style. In analyzing their start-up leadership strategies, one finds a very strong power-oriented 'Moving Against' set of behaviors." When WGU began, in order to articulate their vision and mission, they delineated what they considered incorrect in current public higher education, as Poley noted, thereby "moving against it". "Unfortunately, lack of a coherent vision and significant financial difficulties characterize the enterprise."
It will be necessary for the leaders of complex organizations
to be able to quickly undertake situational assessments, learn, marshal
assets, and be able to continuously make adjustments and change.
Quality Control in Distance Education: The Role of Regional Accreditation
Amy Kirle Lezberg
One advantage to the growing use of new technologies for teaching by colleges and universities, is to address the needs of increasing numbers of students. In light of this, though, higher education institutions are concerned that the high standard of quality, on which these institutions depend, not be compromised. Lezberg notes that the purpose of her article "is to report on the development and provide an overview of the standards for quality control of distance education offered by regionally accredited institutions of higher education."
The regional accrediting agencies, in taking on responsibility for the quality control of institutions of higher education offerings started with the following three assumptions: "distance education offerings by an accredited institutions can be considered a part of, rather than separate from, the institution's other educational offerings; distance education can be congruent with an institution's individual mission as well as its accreditor's standards… and the expectations for the regional accrediting associations can be sufficiently universalized so that,…offerings throughout the country can be expected to fulfill similar minimal standards of quality."
Lezberg advises students to locate lists of regionally
accredited distance learning programs so that he/she can be confident
that the programs are equivalent to those offered on-campus.
Low-key Leadership: Collegiate Correspondence
Study and "Campus Equivalence"
Von V. Pittman
Correspondence study, later called independent study
is the way that universities reached beyond their campuses to instruct
those distant to the university. It is the initial and "most persistent
distance education format in American universities". Correspondence
study never had dynamic leadership, but developed into an important instructional
format over the first thirty years, although lacking leadership according
to Pittman. Although there was accelerated growth during those first three
decades, the author notes that the growth was unpredictable, uncontrolled,
and at the national level, without leadership. She believes that the National
University Continuing Education Association's (NUEA) provision of leadership
to be on the reserved side compared to private correspondence schools.
She sees the private correspondence school sector to be "assertive
sometimes even aggressive". The NUEA did not embrace this way of
proceeding and tended to provide leadership through demonstrating the
positives and by providing a model. The article notes that NUEA's first
attempt at leadership in distance education had drawbacks that made failure
to be expected. Pittman notes that the NUEA promotes adopting of resident
instruction teaching styles instead of promoting distance education. The
University Continuing Education Association (UCEA), NUEA's successor is
not in the forefront with respect to independent study.
Pittman notes that for present practitioners of independent study to look
forward to being taken seriously they will need a new kind of organization
that will use a less timid approach.
Gaining Perspective for the Future of Distance
Education from Early Leaders
Ellen L. Bunker
Distance educators today can have a far better understanding of distance education by learning about the early leaders in this field according to Bunker. She believes that especially now as distance education is experiencing rapid growth that forceful leadership is necessary for the following reasons: "prevent chaos, waste of valuable resources, and poorly served learners". It is essential for the field of distance education not to pass over important contributions of the past in the areas of research, theory or professional practices.
In 1938 the International Council for Distance Education (ICDE) was organized; it has given examples of leaders in the early days of distance education who have contributed essential guidance. These early leaders envisioned the importance of distance education and were able to make clear this vision in meaningful ways so that others could not only understand but be able to successfully engage in it. In this article Bunker discuses her analysis of the ICDE conference proceedings from 1938 to 1995 and focuses on the work of some distance educators from the early years who were leaders of ICDE (called the International Council on Correspondence Education at the time) during the first five decades of this century.
The method Bunker used involved the following: "content
of the conference proceedings was examined to uncover a grid or map of
motivations, beliefs, and purposes that appear in the discourse of the
conferences". Studying the results of these proceedings, Bunker notes
that possibly the most eminent early leader was Knute Broday; some other
early leaders are Gibson, Haight, and Butchers. Hopefully the discoveries
and visions of the above noted early leaders will not fall by the wayside,
particularly those of "access and equity". Bunker concludes
with the following statement: "As Johnson warns, to neglect 'where
we have been' misleads our understanding of 'where we want to go' (Johnson
n.d.)".
Joint Ventures in Distance Education: Mapping Uncharted Terrain
Andrea J. Lee and Tracy G. Marsh
Lee and Marsh note that as the numbers of universities and colleges involved in distance education increase, so also will the tremendously vital alliances between these academic institutions and private sector businesses. They suggest that a major challenge in joint educational endeavors is safe-guarding the accountability in relationships. The literature discusses the strengths of partners in academic/business alliances which are bipartite models; Lee and Marsh propose a tripartite model which is the focus of the article. The tripartite model includes the university or college, the business institution and the students as equal partners in the learning experience. They suggest using cartography as a metaphor to better explain this model, based on the history of mapmaking which reveals a "diverse panoply of artists, thinkers, philosophers, teachers, and merchants eager to stretch boundaries by describing, in ever more intricate detail, emerging understandings of the world". Ancient cartography and exploration are excellent metaphors to depict academic institutions as they venture into distance education; even more understanding and insight can be learned of the complex world of profit and non-profit alliances in which educational services are delivered.
The example cited by the authors is that of the strategic
alliance between Marygrove College and Canter and Associates in which
a comprehensive master's degree program in distance education is discussed.
They worked together in partnership to deal with the challenges of collaboration
between academia and business. The success of these types of ventures
depends on the readiness and ability of the partners to communicate and
collaborate in an optimal way.
Distance Education is a Strategy: What is the Objective?
Thomas W. Smith
Distance education has a variety of tools and techniques that can be employed to accommodate to selected business, political or social goals and the educational objectives attached to them. It is strategic planning that is a way for developing and demonstrating the appropriateness between distance education and its goals. Smith believes that distance education should be looked at as a strategy with the possibility of serving multiple educational objectives, rather than distance education as being the objective. The article carefully studies assumptions about offering distance delivery of education and training viewed as a strategy that is able to meet many educational objectives. Smith notes that "when distance education itself is the objective, it is distance education that fails".
Smith notes in summary that Moore and Kearsley (1996) "agree that the key to making distance education an effective strategy is clarity in the formulation of the business goals and educational objectives that it is expected to serve". When the definition of goals and objectives are clear and precise, the opportunities of gaining the cooperation of faculty, alumni, students and others are more likely as they will be able to see if the basic distance education goals correspond to their own.
